Historical Perspective of Disability in the Indian Context
The understanding and treatment of disability in India has undergone significant transformation from ancient to modern times. Disability has not always been viewed through a medical or rehabilitative lens; rather, its meaning and implications have been deeply rooted in religion, culture, social structures, and changing state policies. This discussion traces the trajectory of how disability has been perceived and treated in the Indian context, spanning ancient scriptures, medieval societal norms, colonial laws, and modern constitutional frameworks.
1. Ancient India: Religious and Philosophical Foundations
In ancient Indian society, perceptions of disability were largely influenced by religious beliefs and philosophical thought, especially from Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
- Karma Theory: One of the most dominant ideas in ancient India was the law of karma. Disability was often interpreted as a result of bad deeds (pāpa or sins) in a previous life. For example, being born blind, lame, or mentally challenged was seen as a form of divine punishment or a test of one’s karma. This notion created a moral-religious explanation for disability.
- Inclusion and Respect: Despite the karmic interpretation, some ancient texts also showed respect and care for people with disabilities. The Manusmriti and Dharmaśāstra mention disabled individuals and prescribe ways for their inclusion, although often within the bounds of their limitations.
- Epic Literature: Indian epics such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana include characters with disabilities, though often with symbolic or moral undertones:
- Shakuni (limping due to injury) and Dhritarashtra (blind king) in the Mahabharata.
- These characters are not necessarily marginalised but have active roles, although their disabilities are sometimes portrayed negatively or as a source of weakness or evil.
- Ayurveda and Treatment: Ancient India also developed medical systems such as Ayurveda, which included some knowledge and treatment of physical and sensory disabilities. Texts like Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita mention conditions like blindness, paralysis, and treatments for them.
2. Medieval India: Charitable Care and Social Exclusion
During the medieval period, India witnessed the emergence of Islamic rule in many parts, which brought in Islamic charitable traditions such as zakat (mandatory almsgiving) and waqf (endowments).
- Charity-Based Care: People with disabilities were often recipients of charity. Care was more about providing relief than integration or empowerment. They were often seen as objects of pity and religious duty.
- Begging and Marginalisation: Many disabled people ended up begging, either voluntarily or due to lack of support. Institutions or structured support systems were minimal, and disabled persons often remained on the margins of society.
- Religious Inclusion: Some Sufi and Bhakti traditions showed more inclusive attitudes. Saints and poets from these traditions occasionally acknowledged the spiritual equality of all beings, regardless of physical condition.
3. Colonial India: Medicalisation and Institutionalisation
The British colonial period brought about a shift in how disability was viewed and managed, influenced by Western biomedical models and administrative needs.
- Medical Model of Disability: Disability came to be defined more in medical terms – as a defect or abnormality to be cured or corrected. This led to the rise of institutional care like asylums and special schools.
- Charitable and Missionary Institutions: Christian missionaries established schools and homes for the blind, deaf, and mentally ill. While these institutions provided education and care, they also reinforced the idea of the “otherness” of disabled people.
- Legal Frameworks: British laws categorized people with mental illnesses and certain disabilities as “lunatics” or “idiots,” often placing them under state surveillance or in custodial care. The Lunacy Act of 1858 is an example.
- Employment and Exclusion: Disability also became a criterion for exclusion from public service and education. Colonial governance saw disabled people as unproductive and hence undesirable in bureaucratic structures.
4. Post-Independence India: Rights, Rehabilitation, and Empowerment
With India’s independence in 1947 and the adoption of the Constitution of India, a rights-based and inclusive approach began to develop, although progress has been gradual.
- Constitutional Provisions:
- The Preamble promises justice, equality, and dignity to all citizens.
- Article 41 (Directive Principles of State Policy) directs the State to make provisions for securing the right to work, education, and public assistance in cases of disability.
- Initial Policies: In the early decades, the focus remained on rehabilitation and welfare. Disability was largely addressed through medical and social welfare schemes. Institutions were set up for education and vocational training of people with disabilities.
- Shift to Rights-Based Approach:
- The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995 was the first major legislation to move beyond a charity model and recognize rights of the disabled.
- The Right of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, brought in line with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), further expanded rights, mandated accessibility, and introduced penalties for discrimination.
- Judicial Activism: Indian judiciary has played a significant role in expanding the rights of persons with disabilities. Landmark judgments have pushed for reservation in jobs, access to education, and barrier-free environments.
5. Contemporary Context: Challenges and Progress
Modern India is increasingly recognizing disability as a human rights issue rather than merely a medical or social problem.
- Census and Data: According to the Census 2011, over 2.21% of the population has some form of disability. However, activists argue that underreporting and stigma may mean the real numbers are higher.
- Reservation and Inclusion: Persons with disabilities are now entitled to 4% reservation in government jobs and 5% in higher education institutions under the 2016 Act.
- Accessibility Campaigns:
- The Accessible India Campaign (Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan) launched in 2015, aims to make government buildings, transport systems, and websites accessible to persons with disabilities.
- Representation and Identity: The disability rights movement in India is gaining momentum. Disabled individuals and groups are asserting their identity, demanding representation in politics, media, and policymaking.
- Inclusive Education: Policies like the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 emphasize inclusive education and accommodations for students with disabilities.
Conclusion
India’s historical relationship with disability has been shaped by its complex mix of religion, culture, colonial influences, and modern legal reforms. From being seen as karmic consequences or objects of charity, persons with disabilities in India are now increasingly recognized as rights-bearing citizens. Despite progress in legislation and awareness, challenges like social stigma, infrastructural inaccessibility, and lack of awareness still persist. A continued push for inclusive practices, awareness, and empowerment is essential to make India a truly inclusive society for persons with disabilities.